Sunday, May 31, 2020
double negation.
Various sanskrit documents. for research students.
Law of double negation.
Professor Daniel Ingalls published his Materials for the Study of NavyaNydya Logic in 1951. The publication of this pioneering work has been,
directly or indirectly, responsible for a number of interesting developments
in the study of Indian philosophy. Let me mention only two of them here.
First, a wide and active interest in the study and evaluation of Indian logic
has been visible, since this publication, among the scholarly circles of
Europe and America. Second, and this is more significant, modern students
of philosophy in India to whom Navya-nyaya was practically a sealed text-book
before, have begun to realize consciously the need to study and analyze
Navya-nyaya adequately. All these are matters of common knowledge.Prof. Ingalls himself discussed at some length in his book.
The phrase 'double negation' immediately calls to our mind what is now
known in the Western logical tradition as the classical law of double
negation. This law is actually derivable from the law of excluded middle and
the law of non-contradiction, and it is maintained as a law under t'classical' or standard account of negation in logic.! The logical law of
double negation, however, attracts more attention than usual when a
proposal is made to suspend or restrict it. Thus, it is well-known in Western
logic that a nonclassical or nonstandard account of negation should be
proposed for constructing nonstandard, multiple-valued logical systems.
W.V. Quine has called them 'deviant logics' and described the nonclassical
negation as a proposal for the 'mutilation' of our standard sense of
negation.2
In the context of Indian logic, the phrase 'double negation' is, however,
reminiscent of an important and very controversial doctrine of Dinnaga - the anydpoha 'the exclusion of the contrary', as a possible
nominalistic substitute for universals that are reified as meanings of general
terms. Diimaga's proposal was met with scepticism in opposite camps, and
the followers of Dinnaga apparently complicated the issue by proposing
various tentative solutions to the problem. Perhaps, the relevant problem
cannot be solved adequately unless one proposes (as Prof. H. Herzberger
has done)3 another nonstandard account of negation. My own feeling is that
to make sense of the use of negation in Buddhist philosophy in general, one
needs to venture outside the perspective of the standard notion of negation.
This is another way by which, I believe, one can provide an alternative interpretation of the so-called Madhyamika tetralemma (catu~koti).4
In Navya-nyaya the problem of 'double negation' arises in an entirely different context. And the treatment of the problem is, as may be easily understood, essentially conditioned by the peculiar Nyaya doctrine of negation. It
is obvious that the Navya-nyaya writers were not at all perturbed by the
limitations of the two-valued logic, nor did they worry much about the socalled Vedantic 'challenge' to the law of excluded middle. Moreover, the
Buddhist apoha theory was not at all directly relevant to the problem of
'double negation' in Navya-nyaya. There is, however, a minor detail in the
Navya-nyaya theory of double negation, where one might detect a reaction
to the apoha doctrine of the Buddhist.
S.D. JOSHI
THE CONTRIBUTION OF R.G. BHANDARKAR TO THE STUDY
OF SANSKRIT GRAMMAR
I wish to discuss in this paper, in honour of my guru, Professor Daniel H.H.
Ingalls, the contribution of R.G. Bhandarkar to the study of Sanskrit
Grammar, whose 50th death-anniversary occurred in 1975. For among thc
varied topics of research undertaken by Professor Ingalls, Sanskrit
Grammar has an important place.
Dr. Bhandarkar combined traditional, shastric learning with Western
scholarship. Through him, Indian students in the field of Sanskrit became
acquainted with the critical, comparative and historical method of scientific
investigation, which he applied in his own work and to which he devoted a
separate lccture in 1888.1
Ramkrishna Gopal Bhandarkar (1837-1925) was a school-master and
educationist by temperament2, a grammarian by training3, and a scholar of
the new stamp by general designation4 • He acted as a Professor of Oriental
Languages in the Elphinstone College, Bombay, from 1867, where he was
superseded by P. Peterson in 1873. In 1881, after the retirement of F.
Kielhorn, he was appointed Professor of Sanskrit at the Deccan College,
Poona5• Later he became Vice-Chancellor of the Bombay University6. He
received an honorary doctorate from the University of Gottingen7 and was a
great admirer of German scholarship all his !ifes.
The present article intends to summarize and to discuss a few topics of
grammatical and chronological interest to Bhandarkar as a grammanan.
The points dealt with come under the following heads:
(1) Pal)ini
(2) The relations among the three munis of grammar
(3) Aciirya and iicaryadeSi"ya
(4) Patanjali's date
(5) The composition of the Mahiibhii$ya
1.0
A striking characteristic of Pal)inian grammar is that it does not teach
ready-made forms and paradigms, but rules of a particular kind. The an33
M. Nagatomi. B.K. Matila!. J.M. Masson and E. Dimock (eds.).
Sanskrit and Indian Studies. 33-60.
Copyright © 1979 by D. Reidel Publishing Company.
34 S.D. JOSHI
cient Sanskrit grammarians observed and analysed usage carefully. Then,
reversing the analytic process, they phrased rules for the combination and
integration of the analytically established elements of language. A correct
application of these rules results in pure Sanskrit words ready for use in a
sentence9. A general pattern of rule ordering foIl owed by Pal)ini is that of
special rules coming under general rules. Thus, as noted by Bhandarkar, the
study of Sanskrit grammar came to possess an educational value similar to
that of Euclid. The student has to pay attention to the conditions stated in
the rules, to the relations between the rules, and he has to apply them in a
succession. It was Bhandarkar's conviction that this method of studying
grammar was superior to the one followed in Europe which was mainly
based on the study of Latin grammar. Accordingly, when G. Biihler and M.
Haug insisted on a practical method for learning Sanskrit in the Indian
secondary schoollO, Bhandarkar, in his Second Book of Sanskrit, adopted
and adapted the Pal)inian methodll.
1.1
The occasion for a discussion on a particular aspect of PaI)ini's grammar
arose when Th. Goldstiicker published his work on pal)ini. 12 His idea was
that Pal)ini was not the inventor of the grammatical system preserved in his
work, though he improved upon the system of his predecessors, and made
his own additions to itY Moreover, he availed himself of the technical
means of the older grammarians, and, in such a case, never gave any
explanation of those technicalities which must have been known to his
contemporaries, and, therefore, required no remark. 14 Here the question
arises whether or not Pal)ini was the originator of all the technical terms he
employed in his grammar.15 To answer this question, Goldstiicker refers to
P .1.2.53, the B hd$ya and Kaiyata on that. 16 The sutra is interpreted to mean
that Pal)ini does not treat samjfids, i.e. conventional names, which
admit of an etymology. According to Goldstiicker, this applies also to
grammatical terms which are etymologically significant, but not to artificial
terms like {i, ghu and bha.17 It follows that, if we find etymologically
significant technical terms pefined by Pal)ini, this should be taken to mean
that Pal)ini has coined them, at least in the sense in which he uses them.
Reversely, non-artificial technical terms not defined by PaI)ini have been
borrowed from his predecessors. IS Goldstiicker then applies his theory to
prove that Pal)ini was later than Yaska,19 and that the U~1ddisiitras were
later than P al)ini. 20
Bhandarkar criticizes Goldstiicker on four points, namely, Pal)ini's al
APOHA AND PRATIBHA
The apoha-theory which aroused much controversy concerning the meaning of the word among the Indian philosophers in the classical period was
first expounded by Dignaga in his PramtilJasamuccaya. The fifth chapter of
this comprehensive work, which is'devoted to the elucidation of the apohatheory, begins with the following verse:
na pramti(ltintaram stibdam anumtintit tathti hi tat
krtakatvtidivat svtirtham anytipohena bhti$ate1
That [means of cognition] which is based on word is not an
[independent] means of cognition other than inference. Because [the
word as the basis of] it expresses its own object through the exclusion
of the other [things], just as [the inferential markJ 'krtakatva' or the like
I establishes the object to be proved through the exclusion of what is not
a possessor of that inferential mark I.
As is clear in this verse, the function of a word is recognized by Dignaga
as identical with the function of a linga (inferential mark) in the process
of inference. That a linga functions to prove the stidhya (that which is to
be proved) through the 'exclusion of others' (anya-vyavaccheda, o-apoha)
is discussed by Dignaga in the second chapter of the same work, where
he deals with the inference for one's own sake (svtirthtinumtina).2 Take
for instance the case in which one infers fire on the mountain from smoke,
its lifiga. What is cognized by means of inference in this case is not an
individual fire that possesses various attributes peculiar to it, such as flame,
heat, and so on, but it is 'fire in general' common to all individual fires.
However, there is no 'fire in general' as a real entity. What really exists is
each individual fire possessing particular attributes. The 'fire in general' is
nothing other than a concept which is produced in the mind through the
process of thought-construction. One knows from experience that what is
not fire, e.g., earth, water, or the like, does not possess smoke. Therefore, on
seeing smoke, he understands that the object to be inferred is not a non-fire.
By excluding the non-fire, he forms the notion of 'fire'. The fire thus
conceived is shorn of particular color, flame, heat, etc. that constitute the
characteristic features of each individual fire existing in the external world. It
61
M. Nagatomi. B.K. Matilal. I.M. Masson and E. Dimock (eds.).
Sanskrit and Indian Studies. 61-73.
Copyright © 1979 by D. Reidel Publishing Company.
62 MASAAKI HATTORI
is 'fire in general' which is a mere concept having no objective counterpart.
With this clear view of the process of inference, Dignaga asserted that a
liriga established the sddhya by means of the 'exclusion of others'.
The word functions exactly in the same way to denote the object. The
thing which is to be denoted by the word has various aspects, and no single
word is concomitant with al1 of them. A word stands for only one aspect of
the thing. 3 Accordingly, one applies various words to express one and the
same object: vrk$a (tree), pdrthiva (the earthy), dravya (substance), sat
(existent), and so on. If a word had direct reference to the real entity, all
these words would be regarded as synonymous with each other, since they
al1 refer to one and the same thing. Or, there would be the absurdity that one
thing has as many distinct realities as there are the words expressing it. It is,
therefore, hardly maintained that the word denotes a real object. The thing
in itself, which exists as the indivisible unity of various aspects, is grasped in
its totality only by means of perception free of conceptual construction. The
function of the word consists solely in differentiating the directly perceived
object from the other things. The word 'vrk$a' differentiates the object from
those which are not tree. The same object may be referred to by the word
'dravya' when it is to be differentiated from non-substances. Accordingly, as
the object is distinguished from different things, the different words are
applied to the same object. Thus it is to be concluded that the word refers
only to that portion (al]'lsa) of the object which is differentiated from the
other things. Since the object itself is an indivisible entity, the portion for
which the word stands is nothing other than the product of mental
construction. It is a concept formed through the mental act of
'differentiation from others' (anydpoha).
On the basis of this keen observation, Dignaga made elaborate arguments
against the opponents who held that the word had direct reference to the
individual (vyakti), the universal (jdti), the relation between the two
(sambandha), or the possessor of the universal (jdtimat), and' firmly
established the theory that a word expresses the object qualified by the
exclusion of the other things (arthdntaranivrtti, anydpoha).4
Individual trees are total1y different from each other, but the
'differentiation from non-trees' is common to them all. Dignaga admits that
the 'differentiation from others' is of the nature similar to the universal
(sdmdnya) which is assumed to be real by the Naiyayikas and other realists.
Like the universal, the 'differentiation from non-trees' is single (eka) in many
trees, eternal (nitya) as it resides even in a newly grown tree, and completely
subsistent in each individual tree (pratyekaparisamdpti).5 However, it is not
a positive entity like the universal. It is simply attributed to the object
through mental construction, and as such it has no objective reality.
THE SAT ARUDRIY A
The Satarudriya, constituting the sixty-six subdivisions of chapter 16 of the
Vajasaneyi-Samhita, is a litany accompanying no less than 425 oblations
and addressed to the hundred forms and powers of the god Rudra. This
solemn and awful ceremony belongs closely to the preceding chapters which
contain the formulas of the most important agnicayana, the piling of the
great fireplace; because Agni, that is the fireplace, has on completion
become Rudra, the representative of the unconquered, dangerous,
unreliable, and hence much to be feared nature.! Compare SB. 9, 1, 1, 1 "He
then performs the Satarudriya sacrifice. This whole Agni has here been
completed; he now is the deity Rudra". The sacrifice is to avcrt the god's
wrath and to secure his favour. 2 Afte~ dealing with the performance the
SalTlhita proceeds to mention the mantras relating to the propitiatory
and preparatory ceremonies in connexion with Agni. The mantras of the
Satarudriya are addressed to the various aspects and functions of Rudra
who is regarded as a metamorphosis of Wrath (Manyu); "hundred-headed,
thousand-eyed, hundred-quivered, with his bow strung and his arrow fitted
to the string, Rudra being in quest of food was inspiring fear ... " (~m. 9, 1,
1, 6). The first four mantras give a good idea of the tone and character of
the whole chapter devoted to the god with the azure neck and red hue who is
seen by herdsmen and girl-water-carriers3 (V.S. 16, 7):
Homage (be paid), 0 Rudra, to thy Wrath and to thy shaft homage,
and to thy two arms homage. With that most beneficent body (manifestation) gaze on us, 0 mountain-haunter, which, 0 Rudra, is auspicious, mild, benevolently looking. That shaft, which, 0 mountain-haunter, thou art holding in thy hand to shoot, make that, 0 mountainprotector, auspicious. Do not injure man or (other) moving beings.
With auspicious words we salute thee, 0 mountain-dweller, that all our
moving beings may be healthy and well-satisfied.
The god - who is also described as being surrounded by numerous Rudras
(VS. 16, 6; cf. 54; 65; 66), his partial manifestations, who had come into
existence at the same time as Rudra himself (SB. 9, 1, 1, 6)4 - is implored to
protect those who invoke him and to spare their lives. The sections 1,8, 14,
75
1'>1. Nagatomi, B.K. Matilal, IM. Masson and E. Dimock (eds.),
Sanskrit and Indian Studies. 7S-l) I.
Copyright @ 1979 by D. Reidel Publishing Company.
76 J.GONDA
17-46, 64-66 of VS. 16 are stereotyped prose formulas beginning with
"homage (namal:z)" paid to the god, his manifestations, functions, activities,
weapons, abodes, to various beings of whom he is the lord or leader, and so
on. Thus the chapter is an early instance of the well-known Indian
enumerations of divine names and epithets the recital of which is considered
most effective as a means of compelling a god to be gracious (cf. SB. 9, 1, 1,
14; 18; 22; 24) to fulfil wishes, and meritorious as a work of devotion and a
method of entering into spiritual contact with the deity.
Although the greater part of the text is not explained or commented upon
in the Satapatha-Brahmal)a attention may be invited to a few passages in
that work. The Satarudriya offering was according to 9, 1, 1, 7 instituted by
order of Prajapati who, being afraid of Rudra, had food gathered for him
and "appeased him therewith". That food, that offering, was originally
called "that by which the deity is appeased" (idntadevatya), but "because
the gods like the cryptic" it "is here called cryptically Satarudriya", another
instance of a well-known type of etymological explanation in these texts (9,
1, 1, 2). In 9, 1, 1,43 the author informs us of how this Satarudriya sacrifice
came to attain to conformity with the year and with Agni: the 425 formulas
and oblations contained in it are the 360 days of the years, the 30 nights of
the month and the 35 days of the thirteenth month6, which is "Agni's self'.
The Satarudriya litany was not only transmitted by the followers of the
White Yajurveda. There exists also a recension in the Black Yajurveda
handed down in four versions, that is in all basic texts of that Veda that have
survived, viz. the Sarphitas of the Taittiriyas (TS. 4, 5), of the Kathas proper
(KS. 17, 11-16), of the Kapi~thala-Kathas (KapS. 27, 1-6), and of the
Maitrayal)lyas (MS. 2, 9, 2-9).7 The information given by the
corresponding brdhmm:za portions of these texts in explanation of some
particulars of the Satarudriya ritual need not detain us. Only the beginning
of TS. 5, 4, 3, 1- the brdhmar;a section belonging to TS. 4, 5 - may be
quoted:
The fire (place) is Rudra. He is born when he has been completely piled
up. Just as a calf desires the teat, so he here seeks his portion ... He
offers the SatarudrIya8 (oblation); verily he appeases him with (his own)
portion ...
Other references to the litany and the sacrifice are, in the brdhma~1as,
infrequent and almost devoid of special relevance when our object is to trace
the history of the text, the use made of it in other rituals and the religious or
philosophical significance attached to it. The author of TS. 5, 7, 3, 3,
observing that the fire is Rudra says that he has two bodies, a dread (ghora)
HINDU CONCEPTS OF TEACHER SANSKRIT GURU AND
ACARYA1
The Sanskrit words dcdrya and guru both have the meaning of'teacher'.
The etymology of dcdrya is not certain. It is generally supposed to derive
from dcdra, right conduct, or from dcarati, to approach, to go to as for
instruction, or from dcinoti, to accumulate knowledge, wealth or merit. 2
Guru derives from an Indo-european v.ord for 'heavy', its semantic
development being from heavy to important, awesome, thus, an elder, a
teacher. 3 However, it is not with etymologies that we are here concerned,
but with the finished product. In Sanskrit commentaries and versified texts
the two words are freely interchanged, as though they were exact
synonyms.4 However, the two words had separate origins, and to attribute
equal semantic value to these apparently synonymous words may efface the
subtle nuance attached to each.s In the pages which follow, we shall examine
briefly the passages where these words occur, bring to the light the aspects
in which the two words distinguish themselves from each other, and
ascertain several distinctive connotations of both words. It is with gratitude
and respect toward my guru, who is at the same time a great dcdrya in
Indological Studies, that I here take up the Hindu concepts of teacher, and
dedicate this small contribution to the guru-pujd-kaumud{ of Professor
Daniel H.H. Ingalls.
As a word used in the sense of teacher, dcdrya is older than guru. In
Atharvaveda 11.5, which praises the Brahmacarin the dcdrya is said to
seek out a vedic student (brahmacdrin),6 to take (a student) as a pupil
(upanayamdna), to bring about the rebirth of this student,7 and to fashion
both earth and sky.s In the Satapatha BrahmaJ.la, SaJ.l<;lilya and
Saptarathavahini are called dcdrya and antevdsin.9 Here the manner of the
initiation-ceremony (upanayana) is described.lO That is, upon the arrival of
Brahmacarin, the student, the dcdrya asks him his name,l1 and takes his
right hand with the words "Indra's disciple thou art; Agni is thy teacher
93
M. Nagatomi, BX. Matilal, J.M. Masson and E. Dimock (eds.),
Sanskrit and Indian Studies. 93-118.
Copyright © 1979 by D. Reidel Publishing Company.
94 MINORUHARA
(dcdrya). I am thy teacher (dcdrya).,,12 Taking him as a pupil the dcdrya
teaches the Savitr hymnY
The Upani~ads show this same tradition.
dCdrya-kuldd vedam adhiiya yathdvidhdnam (Chiindogya Upani~ad
8.15.1).
"Having learned the Veda from the house of a teacher according to
rule."
vedam anucydcdryo 'ntevdsinam anuidsti: satyarrz vada dharmarrz cara
(Taittiriya U pani~ad 1.11.1).
"Having taught the Veda, the teacher instructs the pupil. Speak the
truth, practise virtue."
This characteristic feature of the dcdrya coincides exactly with the definition
given by Manusmrti and Amarakosa.
'upan{ya tu ya/! iisyarrz vedam adhydpayed dvija/!
sakalparrz sarahasyarrz ca tam dcdryarrz pracaksate (Manusmrti 2.140).
"They call that Brahmin who initiates a pupil and teaches him the Veda
together with the Kalpa and Rahasya, the teacher (of the latter)."
mantra-vydkhyd-krd dcdrya ddes(d (Amarako~a 2.7.7).
"He who explains the mantra is dcdrya and guide."14
But the dcdrya's instruction is not limited to Vedic knowledge. He may impart to his student knowledge in general. The verb vid-(to know) and its substantive vidyd appear often in connection with the dcdrya.
dcdrytidd haiva vidyd vidild sddhi:jfharrz prdpayattli (Chandogya
Upani~ad 4.9.3).
"That the knowledge which has been learned from teacher best helps
one to attain his end."
athddhividyam: dcdrya/! purva-rupam, antevdsy uttara-rupam,
vjdyd sarrzdhi/:l pravacanarrz samdhdnam ily adhividyam (Taittirlya
Upanisad 1.3.3).
"Now as to knowledge: the teacher is the prior form, the pupil is the latter form, knowledge is their junction, instruction is the connection.
Thus, with regard to knowledge."15
From these passages, one may say that in Brahmal)ical texts the dcdrya
functions as a teacher especially of vedic knowledge and in the Upani~ads as
a teacher especially of philosophical and metaphysical knowledge, but
sometimes of knowledge in general. In both sorts of text, he is a teacher at
whose house a young Brahmin should live (dcdrya-ku!a)16 during his firs
DAVID PINGREE
THE KHETAMUKTAvALi OF NRSIMHA
One of the most distinguished families of jyauti~is in India was that whose
first member was Kesava, the son of Kamalakara of the Kausikagotra. 1 He
and his descendants resided at N andigrama (modern N andod in Gujarat,
north of Rajpipla and on the south bank of the Narmada near its mouth)
from the late fifteenth till the mid seventeenth centuries. Kesava, who
studied under Vaidyanatha, wrote an astronomical karal)a entitled
Grahakautuka or Khetakautuka, whose epoch is Saka 1418 = A.D. 1496.
The Khetasdraf.ll mentioned in Khetamuktdval{ 3 was presumably a set of
tables intended to accompany the Grahakautuka, though more than the
text's fifty years had passed in Saka 1488 = A.D. 1566, which is Nrsirpha's
epoch. The number was not meant to be precise.
Kesava had three sons: Gal)esa,2 Ananta,3 and Rama. The first wrote,
among many other works, a Grahaldghava, which became the standard
textbook of the school of astronomers known as the Gal)esapak~a.4 He
claims to have utilized his father's work; and the parameters used by
Nrsirpha are related to his.5
Nrsirpha,6 the son of Rama and the pupil of Gal)esa, was born, according
to Grahakaumud{7 IV 12, in Saka 1470 = A.D. 1548. He is the author of
several astronomical works, including a commentary on his uncle's
Grahaldghava, the Har~akaumud{; the Grahakaumudi~ which has as
epochs 31 March 1588 and 31 March 1603; and the Khetamuktdvali~
whose epoch is Sunday 31 March 1566 and which is edited here. Gal)esa's
great-grandson Gal)esa8 quotes Nrsirpha's Bhaga~lOpapatti in his commentary, Siromaf.liprakdsa, on Bhaskara's Siddhdntasiroma~li.9
There are three manuscripts of the Khetamuktdval{ MS. 1461 in the Indian Museum in CalcuttalO mentions no author. MS. 4502 in the Anup
Library in Bikaner, consisting of 38ff., is the only manuscript accompanied
by the set of tables computed by Nrsirpha; it was copied by Kr~l)asamati
Mala in Saka 1587 = A.D. 1665. I have not been able to consult either of
these, but have used MS. 54 in the Harvard College Library.
The manuscript consists of two parts, A and B, of 4ff. and 9ff. respectively; both were written by the same hand in the last century. The text occupies
ff. Iv-4r of A; it is followed, on ff. 4r-4v, by these two inept verses, of
whieh the second has as epoch Saka 1275 = A.D. 1353:
143
M. Nagatomi, B.K. Mati/ai, J.M. Masson and E. Dimock (eds.),
Sanskrit and Indian Studies. 143-157.
Copyright © 1979 by D. Reidel Publishing Company.
144 DAVID PINGREE
sve\>tas ca avadhl kheta antaralakaladikam I
gatabhakte dinadyais ca grhe sankramal)o bhavet II
sake bal)adrisuryone tryasvaghne 'bdhyangasarpyute I
nagabal)ahrte labdharp varal; se~as tu na<;likal; II
Part B contains a tlka which breaks off, on f. 9v which is left mostly blank,
at the beginning of the commentary on verse 12. In the commentary on
verses 5- 7 and 9-11 are examples for Saka 1737 = A.D. 1815, which
must be the approximate date of the composition of this tlka. The commentary on verse 2 utilizes the word turaka (ef Hindi turra, Marathl tura) to explain avatarpsa: puno gal)akavaryakulavatarpsal; I gal)ake~u jyotirvitsu ye
varyal; pujyas te~arp kule 'vatarpsal; prakrtabha\>aya turakal; II The only
other indication of the provenance of the tika is in the commentary on verse
8, where in the example given the locality is 32 yojanas or 2;24° west
of the prime meridian: rekhasvadesamadhyasthayojanani 32 I e~am
abhrebhabhago ghatikadil; 0 I 24 I ayarp svadesasya pascimasthitatvad
abdapana<;ll$u 51481 5 rahital; 5 I 47 i 41 I ayarn spa$tabdapo jatal; II The
longitudinal difference between Ujjayinl and Nandigrama is 2;10°.
In the commentary on verse 6 the tlkakara computes the following true
sidereal longitudes of the planets for 7 April 1815 from the tables of the
Khetamuktd)lali~ which are here compared with modern computations of
their true tropical longitudes.
K hetamuktiival{ Modern
Saturn 4,48;13,0° 5,10°
Jupiter 2,44;29,0° 3,30
Mars 4,48;33,16° 5,5°
(Sun 0°) 17°
Venus 27;45,20° 43°
Mercury 5,35;16,0° 5,51°
---~----
srlgal)esaya namal; II
k~itibhrtsutaya tu kamado 'sau
budhavidyadhararamyapadapadmal; I
krpayardramana gurur gal)e
MASA TOSHI NAGA TOM I
MANASA-PRATYAKSA: A CONUNDRUM IN THE BUDDHIST
PRAMAijA SYSTEM
Almost fifty years have passed since the first milestone was laid down for a
critical study of the Buddhist pramalJa system by Theodor Stcherbatsky
with his publication of Buddhist Logic (2 vols., Bibliotheca Buddhica,
XXVI, Leningrad, 1930-32). The intervening years have witnessed many
significant publications providing fresh information on the works of
Dignaga and Dharmaklrti, the founding fathers of the Buddhist pramalJa
system. These publications place us on much sounder ground than ever
before for making an intellectual excursion into the inner sanctum of th.e
system. It is also true, however, that new findings in scholarship sometimes
lead to hitherto unnoticed problems and occasionally revive some of the old
ones, with their complexities now articulated in a new fashion. One such
case in the Buddhist pramalJa system is Y(lanasa-pratyaksa (mental
perception) as a variety of pratyaksa (perception). The question of why
Dignaga deemed it necessary to postulate manasa-pratyak!$a and just what
he meant by it still remains as much a conundrum to us as it was to postDharmaklrti philosophers in classical India and to Buddhist academics in
Tibet.' The aim of this article is merely to attempt to locate the proper place
for a tiny missing piece of a huge jigsaw puzzle - a piece that has been
shuffled and reshuffled over the centuries. It is written in a spirit of gratitude
to Daniel H.H. Ingalls, Wales Professor of Sanskrit at Harvard University,
who has patiently guided me on my venture into the maze of the Buddhist
pramalJa system.
I. INTRODUCTION
In discussing Dignaga's relation to Dharmaklrti, Ingalls observes, "Dignaga
found an interpreter in the seventh century, Dharmaklrti, who covered the
same ground in greater detail and on some points with greater precision, and
who furnished arguments against the more formidable opponents of a later
age.,,2 Indeed it took Dharmaklrti's classification and elucidation of
Dignaga's pratyaksa as consisiting of four varieties to bring manasapratyaksa, one of the varieties, to the attention of a large number of later
commentators. According to Dharmaklrti, the types of pratyaksa intended
243
M. Nagalomi, B.K. Malilal, J.M. Masson and E. Dimock (eds.),
Sanskrit and Indian Studies. 243-260.
Copyright © 1979 by D. Reidel Publishing Company.
244 MASATOSHI NAGATOMI
by Digniiga are indriya-jiidna (=indriya-pratyaksa, sense-perception),
mano-vljnana (=mdnasa-pratyak$a, mental perception), sva-saf?1vedana
(self-awareness) of every cognition and yogi-jiidna (=yogi-pratyak$a,
yogin's perception).3 Of these, DharmakTrti defines mdnasa-pratyak$a as
being produced by sense-perception (indriya-jiidna) which is the
immediately preceding (homogenous) cause and which is contemporaneous
with the object immediately following its (real) object. DharmakTrti's good
intention to dispel whatever ambiguities he thought might exist with respect
to Digniiga's mdnasa-pratyak$a, however, had little effect in fully
convincing post-DharmakTrti academics, either Buddhist or non-Buddhist,
of the legitimacy of mdnasa-pratyak$a in Digniiga's pramdlJa system. The
less than enthusiastic reception Dharmottara and other post-DharmakTrti
followers accorded mdnasa-pratyak$a is evident in their basic attitude,
which was "Let us retain it because it was postulated by our multicdrya,
Digniiga. There is no harm in honoring its place in his pramdlJa system,
although it cannot be proved by a valid means of cognition."4
We shall begin our investigation of the topic by introducing the text in
which Digniiga's mdnasa-pratyaksa makes its official debut. The text is his
magnum opus, the PramdlJa-samuccaya (hereafter abbreviated as PS)
together with the PramdlJasamuccayavrtti (hereafter abbreviated as PSV),
his auto-commentary on PS. The translation of the text provided in the
following is from Professor Masaaki Hattori's Digndga on Perception, the
most comprehensive and authoritative work to date on PS, Book I.
mdnasaf?1 ctirtha-rdgtidisva-saf?1vittir akalpikd
mdnasam apy ruptidi-vi$aytilambanam
anubhavtikdra-pravrttaf?1 rdgtidi$u ca
sva-saf?1vedanam indriytinapek$atvdd
mdnasGI!l pratyak$am (PS, 1. K. 6ab and PSV)
There is also mental [perception, which is of two kinds: I awareness of
an I external I object and self-awareness of [such subordinate mental
activities as] passion and the like, [both of which are] free from
conceptual construction.
The mental [perception] which, taking a thing of color, etc., for its
object, occurs in the form of immediate experience (anubhava) is also
free from conceptual construction. The self-awareness (sva-saf?1vedana)
Saturday, May 30, 2020
Friday, May 29, 2020
life and sacrifice.
Sastras explain that karma has no beginning or end and that all beings are bound to samsara by the ties of karma. All actions, good or bad, are called karma and produce the effects of joy or sorrow respectively. So, actions that are done when being prompted by inner desires and vasanas are the karma and to face the effects thereon, people are born repeatedly. This naturally hinders their chances of liberation.
But Vedanta study offers the path of Jnana or Vidya by which one can circumvent the endless cycle of karma and strive to escape from this in a tangential manner, pointed out Sri K. Srinivasan in a discourse. Even the study of Vedanta, if it remains at the theoretical and intellectual level, becomes ineffective for realisation of Brahman. But it becomes a great boon when the spiritual aspirant utilises it to get rid of karma and to get liberated. The fundamental teaching reinforced in the Gita is that each one should be aware that he is a unique blend of the physical and the spiritual. The self within the body is the witnessing consciousness responsible for the functioning of the body and is the knower of all, the Kshetrajna. This self is the essence of permanent joy.
The body is compared to a field, Kshetra, where events happen. There is birth, growth decline and death. The five gross elements, the ego sense, intellect including the unmanifest, the karmendriyas and the jnanendriyas, are the constituents of the field. But being ignorant of the exceptional and immortal indwelling self that is of the essence of bliss, many are deluded into believing that joy can be sought in the external world. He who understands the invaluable quality of one’s present birth as a chance to strive for salvation is really blessed, since no one has any clue about what is in store in each one’s prarabdha karma account.
The concept of Knowledge of the self, ‘atma tatva jnana,’ is relevant only in the context of Vedanta vichara and does not offer much to a non-believer in the sastras. Strictly speaking, the term ‘jnana’ in sastra drishti means ‘swaroopa jnana’ or ‘atma tatva jnana’ alone, pointed out Sri K. Srinivasan in a discourse. But it is also used with reference to the objective knowledge of the universe, its origin, sustenance, dissolution and so on. In such instances it is known as Vritti jnana. Here ‘jnana’ has an extended or metaphorical usage even as comparisons are in the understanding of principles, ideas, etc. It is similar to describing a boy as a lion cub where the intention is to highlight his smartness and intelligence.
Krishna expounds the essence of this ultimate knowledge which is called as Kshetra Kshetrajna Jnana to clarify and reconcile many subtle and esoteric issues that are difficult to grasp. The uniqueness in the Lord’s creation is reflected in the Prakriti-Purusha principle. Adi Sankara, while explaining this section, shows how the Lord, because of His manifestation as the entire Jagat, appears to be very much involved in its working and upkeep. He appears bound, but is very much above and beyond it. This is the case of every individual jivatma who is a part of this universal eternal existence while he is also a distinct individual with special body mind complex functions. He too appears to be bound to samsara. But the self in reality remains as the Kshetrajna, the knower of all.
The Svetasvatara Upanishad states: “He is the maker of all, the knower of all, the self caused, the possessor of qualities, the knower of everything, the ruler of nature and of the spirit, the lord of qualities, the cause of worldly existence, and of liberation, of continuance and of bondage.”
The Isa Vasya captures the ideal way of life an individual should adopt during his tenure in this world and adds that such a person may be content to live a hundred years and attain Brahman. ‘He is indeed blessed when he lives life without attachments and does his duty in earnest without desire and without yearning for its fruits.’ This kind of orientation towards perceiving life as a sacrifice, meaning, living an austere life with the aim to get liberated eventually is central to the teaching in the Upanishads, pointed out Sri R. Krishnamurthy Sastrigal in a discourse. They also teach many powerful mantras that can be meditated with faith and practised with dedication to attain goals, worldly and spiritual.
In the Chandogya Upanishad (III-16), for instance, there is a mantra that prays for one’s own long life when there is a likelihood of it being cut short owing to sudden sickness or disease. This prayer is connected with the Gayatri mantra, a powerful mantra which is capable of protecting everything existing in this universe. “The Gayatri is what the earth is, for, on it everything here that has come to be. is established.” The idea is that the spiritual aspirant wishes to complete the rituals and duties and seeks protection from untimely death that might overtake him. He is engaged in the performance of the morning, midday and evening libations with the Gayatri hymn. The verse says that in the event of any sickness overtaking him during the three periods of his libations, which metaphorically is taken to be his life span of a hundred and sixteen years, he prays to the respective deities to grant him extension of time to complete the rituals successfully. The symbolic implication is that this mantra has the power to ward off premature death and to grant one long life so that he can strive to get liberated.
Thursday, May 28, 2020
Wednesday, May 27, 2020
Tuesday, May 26, 2020
Furloughed.
You’ve Been Furloughed. Now What?
Nicholas Eveleigh/Getty
Images
Many of us join companies
thinking we will have a clear path of progression and growth for years to come.
For the most part, since the last recession, this has been true. But what
started as a health crisis has evolved into a redefinition of work, with an estimated 18 million Americans furloughed since mid-March.
The economy has taken a
serious plunge, and now the millions waiting for their careers to resume
are faced with a new question: Should I wait for my furlough to end or should I
apply for other jobs?
FURTHER READING
Furloughs —
a word that until recently was unfamiliar to most people, including business
leaders — are the talk in boardrooms and at breakfast tables around the world.
Furloughs are temporary, unpaid leaves of absence that several businesses have
bestowed on employees due to financial hardships. The catch is that employees
on furlough are able to maintain their health insurance and 401K benefits. At
the same time, they are not provided a salary during the leave, and under such
circumstances, can collect unemployment and benefit from the CARES Act.
A key consideration in
furloughs is that the employees have the opportunity to be called back to their
jobs once their organization recovers — though there is no guarantee that this
will happen. In part, whether or not they return will be contingent on the
demand for their former jobs to return. Many people in this position are
struggling to gauge which decision is wiser: waiting for things to revert to
normal (or at least the new not-normal), or thinking in shorter term and
applying for a new job now.
In our view, there are
five key points to consider if you are debating whether to seek work during
furlough or not:
1. Can
you afford to wait?
This is purely a
financial question. With enhanced unemployment benefits, furloughed Americans
can earn on average $24 an hour for four months. However, for many, this is
insufficient to support their lives, and the limited timeframe is concerning.
Furloughs can last for up to six months before a company is required to decide
if a worker is returning or not. This means there is a chance of economic
exposure pending how long the furlough lasts. There is also the risk that
workers will not be called back to work post-crisis and the opportunities that
were available mid-crisis will be missed.
For those who can’t afford
to wait, there are some good options. You can apply for new roles both
permanent or temporary to keep learning and earning. Although we have a record
number of people filing unemployment, according to ManpowerGroup’s real time
view of all open jobs in the U.S., we had 5.8 million open as of May 7. Even if
you don’t want to commit to a new career path, you can take on temporary work
that allows you to try out a career change before committing to it.
2. Do
you want to wait?
Furlough is a loaded
word, but it doesn’t have to be defined by fear. It can be the beginning of a
new future. Many of us get caught in the trap of normalcy and routine in our
careers and forget to re-examine our interests and life objectives. This crisis
gives us time to re-evaluate our futures in a way that we may have never been
given before. We are forced to stop and think: Is this truly my desired path?
Is this a job I love and want to do again? Or is it time to think of doing
something new?
Take some time to pause
and think. Reimagine your potential in a way that the former normalcy of life
wouldn’t have allowed. Ask yourself if your job is worth waiting for. Do you
want to return to your pre-crisis life? If there is any inkling of doubt in
your mind, there is no downside to applying for something new, and seeing what
could materialize as a different future.
3. Will
what you gain be better than what you leave behind?
The familiar concept of
the “grass is greener” is often true when we think about career options. Analyzing the
pros and cons of your job considerations can play a vital role in making an
informed choice. Take a fresh look at what you enjoy in your furloughed role
and the benefits it provides — from essentials like pay and health care to the
more personal like your hard-earned reputation. All of these elements carry
value. Now compare them to what you could be gaining in a new role at a new
organization. Consider your desired flexibility, learning opportunities, and
perhaps most importantly, the future demand of the work you could pursue
compared to the work you are waiting to return to.
While comparing, remember
that there will always be trade-offs (e.g., less money for more fun, more money
for less freedom, and more prestige for less meaning). Ensure that these are
worth the pursuit and aligned with your core values.
Before making a decision,
this is also the perfect time to discuss your career with your current employer
and see if there are ways to reshape it in ways that work for both of you. It
is possible your workplace may be supportive of you applying for other business
opportunities or work with you on an adjusted scheduled. Ask about the things
you’ve wanted but were too afraid to ask for before. If you decide to pursue a
change after these considerations, you will be doing it with the most available
information.
4. Are
you ready to build a remote network?
Let’s say you are
committed to the exploration and ready to take on a sprint or two for your
future. It’s important to understand how joining a new company during this
crisis and post-crisis will likely play out. Nobody knows, but you can and must
make bets. Without speculation, there is no planning, and planning is all you
can really do right now.
Undoubtedly, there will
not be large onboarding classes where you get the chance to network with
leadership and build a cohort of other new hires. But you can still ask as many
questions as needed during the interview process to ensure that your bets are
as data-driven as possible. Perhaps there won’t be hands-on training, even if
your new role is labor intensive, which is likely, since for most jobs the
largest proportion of learning is on-the-job, practical learning. This does not
mean that companies will stop doing formal training. However, you will need to
be a student and extract formal learnings from every experience.
Given this, you should
consider how you learn best. Can you learn in a virtual environment? How much
supervision do you want and need? Do you prefer to follow instructions or find
your own way? To be successful in this environment, you will likely need to
step outside of your social comfort zone as well. Can you build a network
without physically seeing your co-workers? Do you know how to display key
social skills like empathy and learn a new etiquette online? Think about these
questions as you explore options.
Remember, humans are
extremely adaptable. But we are also quite lazy — always looking for more
efficient and effortless ways to solve our immediate problems. We learn only
when we have to, and now, the whole of humanity must figure out what to do
under these circumstances. The world will be changed even as we reopen it.
Understanding how those changes impact your orientation into a new job and
company is vital.
5.
Would upskilling for the long term be more valuable than new work for right
now?
Finally, there is another
option — let’s call it “working the wait.” The wait for work doesn’t have to be
wasted. It can also be a self-investment. There are numerous options for free
learning and upskilling right now — from Yale University offering one of its
most popular courses on the science of happiness to ManpowerGroup offering free courses in
partnership with the University of Phoenix, as well as a range of
open-source content curators that can help you identify your key learning needs.
The opportunities to learn while you are waiting to earn are numerous.
Even pre-crisis, we knew
that skills were changing with the pace of technology. In many ways the crisis
has accelerated that technology and the possibilities of making a virtual
contribution. Now is a great time to know what skills will be in demand later
on — both soft and hard skills — and invest in future-proofing yourself for the
role you are waiting to return to or the role you choose to pursue during
furlough.
Think of this employment
“time out” as a chance to redefine your short and long-term thinking on career
marathons and job sprints. Use it to reimagine your future because, even when
we return to work, it will be very different than it was in the past.
Prastana traya
Vedanta philosophy accepts the Prasthana Traya texts, the Upanishads, The Bhagavad Gita and the Brahma Sutra as authoritative and primary sources that teach the means to strive for salvation. No study of Vedanta is considered complete without a close examination of the Prasthana Traya texts. The Vedas and the Upanishads are Sruti Prasthana, that is, revealed texts. ‘Sruti’ literally means that which is heard, and is considered as sacred knowledge that has been handed down from days of yore through the oral tradition of communication.
The Bhagavad Gita, the Puranas, etc, are known as Smriti Prasthana. These are the compositions of sages based on their understanding of the valuable insights in the Vedas and their ability to remember and recall these. The Brahma Sutra compiled by Vyasa is known as Nyaya Prasthana or Sutra Prasthana, wherein the philosophical doctrines are analysed logically and systematically. Just as the various river ghats help people to have a dip in the deep waters these texts guide the spiritual aspirant to enter the river of jnana, pointed out Sri R. Krishnamurthy Sastrigal in a discourse. All Vedanta texts speak in one voice about the one and only Brahman who is the sole cause of the universe and of His nature as the essence of eternal consciousness and bliss, sat-chit-ananda. In the Brahma Sutra this is reinforced to show that there is no scriptural text that can be effectively used against the Vedanta teachings. There is no way by which the validity of any system that is opposed to the Vedas can be established in a foolproof manner. Vedanta system makes extensive use of Smriti texts such as Manu Smriti, Vishnu Purana, etc, to argue convincingly about Brahman as the intelligent primary cause of the universe.
Bondage of Karma,
Sastras explain that karma has no beginning or end and that all beings are bound to samsara by the ties of karma. All actions, good or bad, are called karma and produce the effects of joy or sorrow respectively. So, actions that are done when being prompted by inner desires and vasanas are the karma and to face the effects thereon, people are born repeatedly. This naturally hinders their chances of liberation.
But Vedanta study offers the path of Jnana or Vidya by which one can circumvent the endless cycle of karma and strive to escape from this in a tangential manner, pointed out Sri K. Srinivasan in a discourse. Even the study of Vedanta, if it remains at the theoretical and intellectual level, becomes ineffective for realisation of Brahman. But it becomes a great boon when the spiritual aspirant utilises it to get rid of karma and to get liberated. The fundamental teaching reinforced in the Gita is that each one should be aware that he is a unique blend of the physical and the spiritual. The self within the body is the witnessing consciousness responsible for the functioning of the body and is the knower of all, the Kshetrajna. This self is the essence of permanent joy.
The body is compared to a field, Kshetra, where events happen. There is birth, growth decline and death. The five gross elements, the ego sense, intellect including the unmanifest, the karmendriyas and the jnanendriyas, are the constituents of the field. But being ignorant of the exceptional and immortal indwelling self that is of the essence of bliss, many are deluded into believing that joy can be sought in the external world. He who understands the invaluable quality of one’s present birth as a chance to strive for salvation is really blessed, since no one has any clue about what is in store in each one’s prarabdha karma account.
variola
The WHO initially rejected their applications, stating that rural India would be too much of a culture shock for two American women. But, Mary Guinan and Cornelia E Davis stood firm and toiled on-ground to eventually help make India smallpox-free.
Not so long ago, there was a time in India when uttering the word ‘Variola’, or its more colloquial version—smallpox—sent a shiver down everyone’s spine. The disease came in stealthily, with high fever, and within a few days, would proliferate fatally to claim one’s life. Worse, the highly contagious disease would infect the victim’s family, their neighbourhood, and gradually set in an epidemic in an entire region.
In 1974, the biggest smallpox epidemic wreaked havoc especially in the highly populated states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. Fear reigned across extensive areas as village after village succumbed to the ailment.
Families would flee their village the moment they heard of a smallpox case in their area, often leaving their nearest and dearest ones on their deathbeds. Smallpox was thus widely known as the disease of no-return, killing three in every ten people. Overall, it had claimed millions of lives across the planet.
The lack of treatment only increased the helplessness of the people. They resorted to religion to spare them from the ‘curse’. In Bengal, they started worshipping ‘Sitala Mata’—the deity of pox and termed the ailment as ‘Mayer Asirwaad’ (the mother’s blessing)—in a desperate effort to alleviate its suffering.
Aside from fear, another reason for worshipping the Goddess of smallpox can be attributed to its intensely painful symptoms. The rashes usually started showing inside the mouth, and gradually infested the entire body, triggering nausea, malaise, diarrhoea, and compromised immunity.
A decade before the ‘74 epidemic, the Indian government had designed a mass vaccination scheme to eradicate smallpox. However, the exponentially rising population of India was decelerating the process.
Finally, in 1970, India adopted the smallpox campaign by the World Health Organisation (WHO). Through a meticulous and painstaking process, India was eventually declared free from smallpox in 1977.
Incidentally, three years later, in 1980, smallpox was officially eradicated from the world.
In this regard, the contribution of two extraordinary women deserves special mention. Without these unsung Bravehearts, India perhaps would still be lurking under the ‘curse’ of the ghastly ailment. American doctors Mary Guinan and Cornelia E Davis sacrificed their cosy comforts and spent months in the remotest parts of India, working on-ground. The Better India traces their extraordinary stories, which they have vividly narrated in their memoirs.
Mary Guinan
In her biography, Adventures of a Female Medical Detective: In Pursuit of Smallpox and AIDS, Guinan writes what actually brought her to India in the middle of the deadly outbreak.
Born in 1939 in New York, Guinan dreamt of becoming an astronaut in her early years. But NASA did not allow women inside their main sanctum—Houston Control Centre—till 1968; as male authorities were under the pretext that women would ‘distract’ men from the pursuit of science.
Nevertheless, Guinan did not sit disheartened, and instead, opted for a medical career. After graduating, she underwent a two-year training at the Epidemic Intelligence Service (EIS) at the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).
It was there that she learnt about the smallpox epidemic in India. She stepped up to apply for volunteering on-ground in India.
Her applications were rejected for two years consecutively, the excuse being WHO’s non-acceptance of women in the programme. Later, EIS conveyed to her that Indians were seemingly apprehensive to welcome a woman volunteer.
Guinan decided to persist in her decision and fought harder. She knew that India was being headed by a woman prime minister—Indira Gandhi—at the time. She attempted to communicate directly with the Prime Minister’s Office and secured a volunteer grant for herself within a few months.
Dr. Mary Guinan: The Epidemiologist Who Gave CNN Sass For Asking A Stupid Question ow.ly/4mO8uK @npratc
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She was allotted three month’s work across Uttar Pradesh in 1975. During this time, Guinan traversed across the northern state, accompanied only by a bilingual paramedic and a driver. She went from door to door, interacting with the families and educating them about smallpox. She didn’t restrict her interactions to the womenfolk, but boldly talked with the men as well.
She administered ring vaccination among the communities which catalysed the immunisation process. Finally, just one month after Guinan’s return to the USA, Uttar Pradesh was declared smallpox-free.
Guinan’s experience in India prompted her to delve deeper into the public health sector. Her exceptional work on HIV/AIDS in the USA received immense recognition and was even chronicled in the book And the Band Played On, which was later adapted into a movie as well.
At present, 80-year-old Guinan heads the School of Community Health Sciences in Nevada, USA.
Cornelia E Davis
Davis’ story is perhaps more intriguing, given the fact that she was one of the first African-American doctors from the University of California. In fact, she was the second female black student in her batch.
In her tell-all memoir, Searching for Sitala Mata: Eradicating Smallpox in India, she recounts the two extensive years she spent in India, battling smallpox and the superstitions shrouding the disease.
After completing her residency in paediatrics in 1975, Davis opted to work among the masses in India. When WHO expressed concerns about sending a young woman doctor alone into the rural landscape of India, that too on such a critical mission, it was Davis’ mentor Dr Paul Wehrle who vouched for her efficiency. “Oh, yeah, she can do it,” Wehrle had replied when asked about her.
And indeed, Davis proved her mettle during her prolonged two-year mission. After a few weeks of training in Delhi, she was deployed to the hilly districts of Jalpaiguri, Darjeeling, and Cooch Behar in northern West Bengal.
Firstly, being a Californian by birth, Davis was unaccustomed to the hardships posed by rural India, that too on a rugged mountainous terrain. But, she never inched back from her objective. Walking for hours through paddy fields or narrow hilly trails, Davis and her team started vaccinating every single person within a 1-kilometre radius of a smallpox-affected hamlet.
Their next step was searching for ‘rash-and-fever’ cases within another 10-km radius.
For the local paramedic and driver assigned to her, the cultural shock of teaming up with an African-American woman was immense. So much so that they would eat separately from her, unsure of her caste and creed. Initially, Davis tried to adhere to these unsaid norms out of respect for an unknown land’s culture, but finally, she decided to put her foot down to preserve the integrity of her team.
“I am NOT going to eat all by myself every day for the next six months. I’m in charge of this team and you can both tell the authorities that I ordered you to do this. I have spoken to the gods, I accept all the bad karma, and I’ll take the blame,” she declared to the two men.
Though it was initially difficult for them, they finally eased in Davis’ presence and eventually became good friends.
At the professional front, her work later earned her the unofficial title of ‘Goddess of Smallpox’ back home. Although her deputation was for six months, she extended it to two years, working in the most obscure parts of India, including the desert state of Rajasthan.
After India was declared smallpox-free, Davis returned to California and started practising as a paediatrician. A year later, she was invited to tackle the smallpox situation in Africa.
Later, she continued to live and work across Africa and Asia battling malaria, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, yellow fever, cholera, and a horde of other communicable diseases in lesser privileged communities.
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